The edge of anarchy: The railroad barons, the gilded age, and the greatest labour uprising in America
The Gilded Age, a period of extreme wealth disparity and industrial dominance as described by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in 1873, seemed consigned to history, a relic that no modern society would wish to replicate. The dawn of the Progressive Era brought significant reforms to American politics, cities, and businesses. Historian Richard Hofstadter famously characterised this period as an “Age of Reform.” However, as economic expansion and technological innovation ushered in a “New Gilded Age,” its striking similarities to the past have rekindled interest in the original era. Jack Kelly’s The Edge of Anarchy delves into the labour struggles of this tumultuous time, focusing on the events of 1894, a year of profound upheaval.
Kelly’s work, written for a general audience, offers a gripping narrative of the 1894 Pullman Strike and Boycott, which he dubs America’s “greatest labour uprising.” While this claim might invite debate—the Railway Strike of 1877 or the Homestead Lockout of 1892 could contend for the title—Kelly captures the era’s labour unrest and the bold actions of workers against powerful industrialists.
The Pullman boycott and the birth of a labour icon
At the heart of Kelly’s account lies the Pullman Strike, a nationwide boycott against the Pullman Palace Car Company, founded by George M. Pullman. The conflict erupted in the company-owned town of Pullman, Illinois, near Chicago, during an economic depression that had begun in 1893. Pullman employees, subjected to wage cuts of 25% without corresponding reductions in rent for their company-owned homes, sparked the strike.
Under the leadership of Eugene V. Debs, head of the American Railway Union (ARU), the boycott expanded as railway workers refused to handle Pullman cars, paralysing transport across 27 states. Despite a federal court injunction citing violations of the Sherman Antitrust Act and the Interstate Commerce Act, the ARU held firm. President Grover Cleveland, prompted by Attorney General Richard C. Olney—a former railroad attorney—sent federal troops to quash the strike. The justification was the strike’s disruption of mail delivery and allegations of violence.
Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld condemned Cleveland’s actions as unnecessary and heavy-handed. Debs, imprisoned for violating the injunction, emerged from jail six months later as a committed socialist. He went on to found the Socialist Party of America and ran for the presidency five times, becoming a central figure in American labour history.
Vivid portraits and broader themes
Kelly’s vivid storytelling brings key players to life. Eugene V. Debs emerges as a thoughtful, non-violent leader, contrasting with stereotypes of radical labour agitators. George Pullman, by contrast, is depicted as an inflexible, self-absorbed industrialist unwilling to compromise with his workers. President Cleveland, struggling to navigate an economic depression, appears as an ineffectual leader on labour issues.
The book also provides a rich depiction of Chicago during the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893–94, known as the “White City.” Kelly explores the artificiality of its splendour and the demeaning portrayal of Africans, described by Frederick Douglass as “savage.” He notes the presence of African Americans in the Pullman workforce but offers limited exploration of racial discrimination or Debs’s views on race, a notable gap in his otherwise detailed account.
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Kelly devotes significant attention to the “feudalism” of the company town model, where Pullman exerted near-total control over workers’ lives. This chapter highlights the systemic inequalities that fuelled the strike and its wider implications for labour relations in the United States.
Linking past and present
In a concluding chapter titled “Solidarity,” Kelly draws parallels between the Gilded Age and contemporary struggles. He traces the decline of the Pullman Company, culminating in its closure in 1981, and reflects on the weakening of the American labour movement during the presidency of Ronald Reagan.
Kelly’s work seeks to educate readers on the lessons of history. As he outlines the systemic injustices of both gilded ages, he challenges modern audiences to consider whether they are willing to learn from the past. The Edge of Anarchy serves as a powerful reminder of the enduring tensions between labour and capital, and the resilience of those who dare to challenge the status quo.
The question remains: in the face of growing inequality, will history repeat itself, or will the lessons of the past inspire a new era of reform?
